[Go][c++] padding

[golang]

• zero length type, i.e, sizeof(T) == 0, consumes 1 byte if it's the last data member inside the struct type.
  If it's _not_ the last data member inside the struct type, it's size remains 0.
  why? it's about taking the zero length type's instance's address.
  We don't want the zero length type instance act as the last data member inside a type refers to other memory location.
  The zero length type instance act as data member inside a type which is not at the last location has 0 length.
• ref:
  https://dave.cheney.net/2015/10/09/padding-is-hard
  http://www.catb.org/esr/structure-packing/
• zero length type in namespace's instance's addresses are the same.
  (this is why C++ zero length type's instance always consumes 1 byte for differentiating the instance's address.)
• https://dave.cheney.net/2014/03/25/the-empty-struct#comment-2815
  * It's not true that "a value must be aligned in memory to a multiple of its width."
  * Each type has another property, its alignment. Alignments are always powers of two.
  * The alignment of a basic type is usually equal to its width, but the alignment of a struct is the maximum alignment of any field, and the alignment of an array is the alignment of the array element.
  * The maximum alignment of any value is therefore the maximum alignment of any basic type.
  * Even on 32-bit systems this is often 8 bytes, because atomic operations on 64-bit values typically require 64-bit alignment.
  * To be concrete, a struct containing 3 int32 fields has alignment 4 but width 12.
  * It is true that a value's width is always a multiple of its alignment.
  * One implication is that there is no padding between array elements.
  

  package main
  
  import "unsafe"
  
  type Fun struct {
  	i  *int
  	bl bool
  	b  byte
  }
  
  func main() {
  
  	a := [2]Fun{Fun{}, Fun{}}
  	println(unsafe.Sizeof(Fun{})) // 16
  	println(unsafe.Sizeof(a))     // 32
  
  	b := [2]*int{nil, nil}
  	println(unsafe.Sizeof(b)) // 16
  }
  

• https://golang.org/ref/spec#Size_and_alignment_guarantees
  * A struct or array type has size zero if it contains no fields (or elements, respectively) that have a size greater than zero.
  * Two distinct zero-size variables may have the same address in memory. 
• runtime.zerobase https://github.com/golang/go/blob/383b447e0da5bd1fcdc2439230b5a1d3e3402117/src/runtime/malloc.go#L813
  All zero sized instance has this same address at run-time.
  Found through cmd:
  $ go tool nm

package main

import (
 "fmt"
 _ "unsafe"
)

//go:linkname zerobase runtime.zerobase
var zerobase uintptr

func main() {
 var s struct{}
 var a [42]struct{}

 fmt.Printf("zerobase = %p\n", &zerobase)
 fmt.Printf("       s = %p\n", &s)
 fmt.Printf("       a = %p\n", &a)
}

[C++]

• Empty base optimization
  https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/ebo
  A zero sized type can be used as a namespace for it's member function to be called.
• A zero sized type consumes 1 byte, which is smaller then a pointer to function, which can be used as a callable object with smaller size as a call back function; a typed argument for template struct's type parameter which can be used as a delegator (e.g
  https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/memory/unique_ptr
  https://vsdmars.blogspot.com/2014/12/c14-uniqueptr-with-type-erasure-as.html )
• A zero sized type can consume 0 byte if it's a data member anywhere inside a struct. [C++20]
  https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/attributes/no_unique_address
  Usage: Act as a callable object with operator() defined.
• bit padding
  https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/bit_field
• The type of a bit field can only be integral or enumeration type.
• A bit field cannot be a static data member.
• There are no bit field prvalues: lvalue-to-rvalue conversion always produces an object of the underlying type of the bit field.
• Because bit fields do not necessarily begin at the beginning of a byte, address of a bit field cannot be taken.
• Pointers and non-const references to bit fields are not possible. 
• When initializing a const reference from a bit field, a temporary is created (its type is the type of the bit field), copy initialized with the value of the bit field, and the reference is bound to that temporary.